Changes

Besides manufacturing contact materials from the solid phase, i.e. by melt orpowder metallurgy, the production starting in the liquid or gaseous phase isgenerally preferred when thin layers in within the μm range are required , which cannotbe obtained economically by conventional cladding methods(<xr id="tab:Overview_of_Important_Properties_of_Electroplated_Coatings_and_their_Applications"/><!--(Tab. 7.1)-->). Such coatingsfulfill different requirements depending on their composition and thickness.They can serve as corrosion or wear protection or can fulfill the need for thincontact layers for certain technical applications. In addition they serve fordecorative purposes as a pleasing and wear resistant surface coating.

<figtable id="tab:Overview_of_Important_Properties_of_Electroplated_Coatings_and_their_Applications"><caption>'''<!--Table 7.1: -->Overview of Important Properties of Electroplated Coatingsand their Applications'''</caption>

To reduce the {| class="twocolortable" style="text-align: left; font-size: 12px"|-!Properties!Applications!Examples|-|Color|Pleasing appearance|Brass plated lamps and furniture hardware|-|Luster|Decorative appearance, Light reflection|Chrome plated fixtures, silver coated mirrors|-|Hardness / Wear Resistance|Prolonging of mechanical wear life|Hard chrome plated tools|-|Sliding properties|Improvement of thin dry sliding wear|Lead-tin-copper alloys for slide bearings|-|Chemical stability|Protection against chemical effects|Lead-Tin coatings as etch resist on PC boards|-|Corrosion resistance|Protection against environmental corrosion|Zinc coatings on steel parts|-|Electrical conductivity|Surface conduction of electrical current|Conductive path on PC boards|-|Thermal conductivity|Improved heat conduction on the surface |Copper plated bottoms for cookware|-|Machining capability|Shaping through machining|Copper coatings on low pressure cylinders|-|Magnetic properties|Increase of coercive force [[#text-reference|^*)]] |Cobalt-nickel layers on sliding magnetic storage media|-|Brazing and connectorsoldering|Brazing without aggressive fluxes|Tin-Lead coatings on PC board pathscontacts additional lubricants |-|Adhesion strength|Improvement of adhesion|Brass coating on reinforcement steel wires in liquid form are often used. On silver contactstires|-|Lubricating properties|Improvement of formability|Copper plating for wire drawing|}</figtable>passivation coatings are applied as protection against silver sulfide formation.<div id="text-reference">*) Coercive force= force to retaim the adopted magnetisation</div>

===7.1 Coatings from To reduce the Liquid Phase===For mechanical wear of thin coatings starting from the surface layers on sliding and connector contacts, additional lubricants in liquid phase two processes form are often useddifferentiated by the metallic deposition being performed either with or withoutthe use of an external electrical current source. The first one is electroplatingwhile the second one is a chemical deposition processOn silver contacts, passivation coatings are applied as protection against silver sulfide formation.

===7.1.1 Electroplating (or Galvanic Deposition)=Coatings from the Liquid Phase==For electroplating of metalsthin coatings starting from the liquid phase, especially precious metals, water based solutions(electrolytes) two processes are used which contain differentiated by the metals to be deposited as ions (i.e.dissolved metal salts). An electric field between metallic deposition being performed either with or without the anode and the work piecesas the cathode forces the positively charged metal ions to move to the cathodewhere they give up their charge and deposit themselves as metal on the surfaceuse of the work piece.Depending on the application, for electric and electronic or decorative end use,different electrolytic bath solutions (electrolytes) are usedan external electrical current source. The first one is electroplatingequipment used for precious metal plating and its complexity varies widelydepending on , while the second one is a chemical deposition process technologies employed.Electroplating processes are encompassing besides the pure metal depositionalso preparative and post treatments of the goods to be coated. An importantparameter for creating strongly adhering deposits is the surface of the goods tobe metallic clean without oily or oxide film residues. This is achieved throughvarious pre-treatment processes specifically developed for the types of materialand surface conditions of the goods to be plated.In the following segments electrolytes – both precious and non-precious – aswell as the most widely used electroplating processes are described.

===7.1.1.1 Electroplating Solutions – Electrolytes(or Galvanic Deposition)===The actual For electroplating of metals, especially precious metals, water based solutions (electrolytes) are used, which contain the metals to be deposited as ions (i.e. dissolved metal deposition occurs in salts). An electric field between the electrolytic solution which containsanode and the plating material work pieces as the cathode, forces the positively charged metal ionsto move to the cathode where they give up their charge and deposit themselves as metal on the surface of the work piece. Besides this basic ingredientDepending on the application, the for electric and electronic or decorative end use, different electrolytic bath solutions (electrolytescontain additional components ) are used. The electroplating equipment used for precious metal plating and its complexity varies widely, depending on the process technologies employed.Electroplating processes usedare encompassing, besides the pure metal deposition, such as also preparative and post treatments of the goods to be coated. An important parameter forexample conduction salts, brightenerscreating strongly adhering deposits is that the surface of the goods has to be metallic clean without oily or oxide film residues. This is achieved through various pre-treatment processes, specifically developed for the types of material and organic additives which are codepositedsurface conditions of the goods to be plated.into In the coatingsfollowing segments, influencing the final properties of electrolytes – both precious and non-precious – as well as the most widely used electroplatingdepositprocesses are described.

===7.1.1.1.1 Precious Metal Electrolytes===All precious metals can be electroplated with silver and gold by far the mostwidely used ones ''Main Articel: [[Electroplating (or Galvanic Deposition)| Electroplating (Tables 7.1 and 7.2or Galvanic Deposition)''.The following precious metal electrolytes are the most important ones:]]

===<!--7.1.2-->Electroless Plating=== Electroless plating is defined as a coating process which is performed without the use of an external current source. It allows a uniform metal coating, independent of the geometrical shape of the parts, to be coated. Because of the very good dispersion capability of the used electrolytes, also cavities and the inside of drilled holes in parts can be coated for example.In principal, two different mechanisms are employed for electroless plating: processes in which the carrier material serves as a reduction agent (Immersion processes) and those in which a reduction agent is added to the electrolyte (Electroless processes). Main Articel: [[Electroless Plating| Electroless Plating]] ==<!--7.2-->Coatings from the Gaseous Phase (Vacuum Deposition)==The term PVD (physical vapor deposition) defines processes of metal, metal alloys and chemical compounds deposition in a vacuum by adding thermal and kinetic energy by particle bombardment. The main processes are the following four coating variations (<xr id="tab:Characteristics of the Most Important PVD Processes"/><!--(Table 7.6-->): *Vapor deposition *Sputtering (Cathode atomization)*Arc vaporizing *Ion implantation In all four processes, the coating material is transported in its atomic form to the substrate and deposited on it as a thin layer (a few nm to approx. 10 μm)  <figtable id="tab:Characteristics of the Most Important PVD Processes"><caption>'''<!--Table 7.6:-->Characteristics of the Most Important PVD Processes'''</caption> {| class="twocolortable" style="text-align: left; font-size: 12px"|-!Process!Principle!Process Gas Pressure!Particle Energy!Remarks|-|Vapor deposition|Vaporizing in a crucible <br />(electron beam or resistance heating)|10^-3 Pa|< 2eV|Separation of alloy components may occur|-|Arc vaporizing|Vaporizing of the target <br />plate in an electrical arc|10^-1 Pa-1Pa|80eV-300eV|Very good adhesion due to ion bombardement|-|Sputtering|Atomizing of the target plate<br />(cathode) in a gas discharge|10^-1 Pa-1Pa|10eV-100eV|Sputtering of non-conductive materials possible through RF operation|-|Ion implantation|Combination of vapor <br />deposition and sputtering|10^-1 Pa-1Pa|80eV-300eV|Very good adhesion from ion bombardment but also heating of the substrate material|}</figtable>  The sputtering process has gained the economically most significant usage. Its process principle is illustrated in (<xr id="fig:Principle of sputtering"/><!--(Fig. 7.5)-->). <figure id="fig:Principle of sputtering">[[File:Principle of sputtering.jpg|right|thumb|Figure 1: Principle of sputtering Ar = Argon atoms; e = Electrons; M = Metal atoms]]</figure>Initially, a gas discharge is ignited in a low pressure (10^-1 -1 Pa) argon atmosphere. The argon ions generated, are accelerated in an electric field and impact the target of material to be deposited with high energy. Caused by this energy, atoms are released from the target material which condensate on the oppositely arranged anode (the substrate) and form a layer with high adhesion strength. Through an overlapping magnetic field at the target location, the deposition rate can be increased, making the process more economical. The advantages of the PVD processes and especially sputtering for electrical contact applications are: *High purity of the deposit layers *Low thermal impact on the substrate *Almost unlimited coating materials *Low coating thickness tolerance *Excellent adhesion (also by using additional intermediate layers) Coatings produced by PVD processes are used for contact applications, for example on miniature-profiles, in electrical engineering and for electronic components, for solderability in joining processes, for metalizing of nonconductive materials, as well as in semiconductors, opto-electronics, optics and medical technology applications. There are few limitations regarding the geometrical shape of substrate parts. Only the interior coating of drilled holes and small diameter tubing can be more problematic (ratio of depth to diameter should be < 2:1). Profile wires, strips and foils can be coated from one side or both; formed parts can be coated selectively by using masking fixtures that at the same time serve as holding fixtures (<xr id="fig:Examples of vacuum coated semi finished materials and parts"/>). <figure id="fig:Examples of vacuum coated semi finished materials and parts">[[File:Examples of vacuum coated semi finished materials and parts.jpg|left|Figure 2: Examples of vacuum coated semi finished materials and parts]]</figure> <br style="clear:both;"/>*'''Gold electrolytesMaterials'''Selection of possible combinations of coating and substrate materials <table class="twocolortable"><tr><th rowspan="2"><p class="s8">Substrate Materials</p></th><th colspan="12"><p class="s8">Coating Materials</p></th></tr><tr><th><p><span>Ag</span></p></th><th><p><span>Au</span></p></th><th><p><span>Pt</span></p></th><th><p><span>Pd</span></p></th><th><p><span>Cu</span></p></th><th><p><span>Ni</span></p></th><th><p><span>Ti</span></p></th><th><p><span>Cr</span></p></th><th><p><span>Mo</span></p></th><th><p><span>W</span></p></th><th><p><span>Ai</span></p></th><th><p><span>Si</span></p></th></tr><tr><td><p class="s8">Precious metal / alloys</p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td></tr><tr><td><p class="s8">NF metals / alloys</p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td></tr><tr><td><p class="s8">Fe alloys / stainless steel</p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td></tr><tr><td><p class="s8">Special metals (Ti, Mo, W)</p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-leer.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-leer.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td></tr><tr><td><p class="s8">Carbide steels (WC-Co)</p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-leer.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-leer.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td></tr><tr><td><p class="s8">Ceramics (Al<span class="s16">2</span>O<span class="s16">3</span>, AlN)</p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-leer.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-leer.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-leer.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td></tr><tr><td><p class="s8">Glasses (SiO<span class="s16">2</span>, CaF)</p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-leer.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-leer.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-leer.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td></tr><tr><td><p class="s8">Plastics (PA, PPS)</p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td><td><p><span>[[File:K7-gef.png]]</span></p></td></tr></table> [[File:K7-gef.png]] can be produced[[File:K7-leer.png]] can be produced with intermediate layer *'''Dimensions''' {| class="twocolortable" style="text-align: left; font-size: 12px;width:40%"|-!colspan="2" style="text-align:center"|'''Dimensions'''|-|Coating thickness:|10 nm - 15 μm|-|Coating thicknesses for contact applications:|0.1 - 10 μm|} For the geometry of semi-finished products to be coated, there are few restrictions. Only the coating of the inside of machined holes and tubing haslimitations. *'''Tolerances''' Coating thickness &#177;10 - 30 %, depending on the thickness *'''Quality criteria''' Depending on the application, the following parameters are tested and recorded (see also: Electroplating of parts): *Coating thickness *Solderability *Adhesion strength *Bonding property*Porosity *Contact resistance  These quality tests are performed according to industry standards, internal standards and customer specifications resp. ==<!--7.3-->Comparison of Deposition Processes==The individual deposition processes have in part different performance characteristics. For functional each end application, the optimal process has to be chosen, considering all technical and economical factors. The main selection criteria should be based on the electrical and mechanical requirements for the contact layer and decorative purposes pure on the design characteristics of the contact component. <xr id="tab:Comparison of different coating processes"/><!--Table 7.7--> gives some indications for a comparative evaluation of the different coating processes. The electroless metal coating is not covered here because of the low thickness of deposits, which makes them in most cases not suitable for contactapplications.  <figtable id="tab:Comparison of different coating processes"><caption>'''<!--Table 7.7:-->Comparison of different coating processes'''</caption> {| class="twocolortable" style="text-align: left; font-size: 12px"|-!Process / Coating Properties!Mechanical Processes (Cladding)!Electroplating!Vaccum Deposition (Sputtering)|-|Coating material|formabe metal and alloys|metals, alloys only limited|metals and alloys|-|Coating thickness|> 1μm|0.1 - approx. 10 μm <br />(in special cases up to 100 μm)|0.1 approx. 10 μm|-|Coating configuration|selectively, stamping edges not coated|all around and selectively<br />stamping edges coated|mostly selectivity|-|Adhesion|good|good|very good|-|Ductility|good|limited|good|-|Purity|good|inclusions of foreign materials|very good|-|Porosity|good|good for > approx. 1μm|good|-|Temperature stability|goodvery good|good|very good|-|Mechanical wear|little|very little|little|-|Environmental impact|little|significant|none|}</figtable> The main differences between the coating processes are found in the coating materials and thickness. While mechanical cladding and sputtering allow the use of almost any alloy material, electroplating processes are limited to metals and selected alloys, such as for example high-carat goldalloys with up to .3 wt% Co or Ni. Electroplated and sputtered surface layers have a technological and economical upper thickness limit of about 10μm. While mechanical cladding has a minimum thickness of approx. 1 μm, hard electroplating and sputtering can also be easily applied in very thin layers down to the range of 0.1 μm. The properties of the coatings are closely related to the coating process. Starting materials for cladding and sputtering targets precious metals and their alloys, which in the case of goldand palladium based materials, are vacuum melted and therefore exhibit a very high purity. During electroplating, depending on the type of electrolytes and the deposition parameters, some electrolyte components such as carbon and organic compounds are incorporated into the precious metal coating. Layers deposited from the gaseous phase however are very pure. ==<!--7.4-->Hot (-Dipped) Tin Coated Strip Materials==During hot-dip tinning, lowpre-treated strip materials are coated with pure tin or tin alloys from a liquid solder metal. During overall (or all-karat goldaround) tinning the strips through a liquid metal melt. For strip tinning, rotating rolls are partially immersed into a liquid tin melt and transport the liquid onto the strip, which is guided above them. Through special wiping and gas blowing procedures, the deposited tin layer can be held within tight tolerances. Hot tinning is performed directly onto the base substrate material without any pre-coating with either copper or colored gold nickel. Special cast-on processes or the melting of solder foils onto the carrier strip, also allows the production of thicker solder layers ( > 15 μm). The main advantage of hot tinning of copper and copper alloys, compared to tin electroplating, is the formation of an inter-metallic copper-tin phase (Cu₃Sn, Cu₆Sn₅) at the boundary between the carrier material and the tin layer. This thin (0.3 – 0.5 μm) intermediate layer, which is formed during the thermal tinning process, is rather hard and reduces the frictional force and mechanical wear in connectors. Tin coatings produced by hot tinning have a good adhesion to the substrate material and do not tend to tin whisker formation. A special process of hot tinning is the “Reflow” process. After depositing a tin coating by electroplating, the layer is short-time melted in a continuous process.The properties of these reflow tin coatings are depositedcomparable to those created by conventional hot tinning. Besides overall tin coating of strip material, the hot tinning can also be applied in the form of single or multiple stripes on both sides of a continuous substrate strip (<xr id="fig:Typical examples of hot tinned strip materials"/>). <figure id="fig:Typical examples of hot tinned strip materials">[[File:Typical examples of hot tinned strip materials. Depending jpg|left|Figure 3: Typical examples of hot tinned strip materials]]<br style="clear:both;"/></figure><br style="clear:both;"/>*'''Materials'''Coating materials: Pure tin, tin alloys<br>Substrate materials: Cu, CuZn, CuNiZn, CuSn, CuBe and others<br /> *'''Dimensions and Tolerances'''{| class="twocolortable" style="text-align: left; font-size: 12px;width:40%"|-|Width of tinning: |&#8805; 3 &#177; 1 mm|-|Thickness of tinning: |1 - 15 μm|-|Tolerances (thickness): |&#177; 1 - &#177; 3 μm depending on tin thickness|} *'''Quality Criteria'''Mechanical strength and dimensional tolerances of hot tinned strips are closely related to the standard for Cu and Cu alloy strips according to DIN EN 1652 and DIN EN 1654.Quality criteria for the actual tin coatings are usually agreed upon separately. ==<!--7.5-->Contact Lubricants==By using suitable lubricants, the mechanical wear and frictional oxidation of sliding and connector contacts can be substantially reduced. In the electrical contact technology, solid as well as high and low viscosity liquid lubricants are used. Contact lubricants have to fulfill a multitude of technical requirements: *They must wet the contact surface well; after the sliding operation the lubrication film must close itself again, i.e. mechanical interruptions to heal*They should not transform into resins, acidicnot evaporate, neutraland not act as dust collectors*The lubricants should not dissolve plastics, they should not be corrosive to non-precious metals or cyanide electrolytes based initiate cracking through stress corrosion of plastic components*The specific electrical resistance of the lubricants cannot be so low that wetted plastic surfaces lose their isolating properties*The lubricant layer should not increase the contact resistance; the wear reducing properties of the lubricant film should keep the contact resistance low and consistent over the longest possible operation time Solid lubricants include for example 0.05 – 0.2 μm thin hard gold layers, which are added as surface layers on top of the actual contact material. Among the various contact lubricants offered on potassium gold cyanide or cyanide the market, contact lubrication oils have shown performance advantages. They are mostly synthetic, chemically inert and silicone-free oils which differ in their chemical composition and viscosity. For sliding contact systems with contact forces < 50 cN and higher sliding speeds, oils with a lower viscosity (< 50 mPa·s) are preferential. For applications with higher contact forces and neutral electrolytes operating at higher temperatures, contact oils with a higher viscosity are advantageous. Contact oils are mainly suited for applications at low current loads. At higher loads and in situations where contact separation occurs during the sliding operation, thermal decomposition may be initiated, which causes the lubricating properties to be lost.  ==<!--7.6-->Passivation of Silver Surfaces==The formation of silver sulfide during the shelf life of components with silver surface in sulfur containing environments, can be significantly eliminated by coating them with an additional protective film layer (Passivation layer). For electrical contact use, such thin layers should be chemically inert and sufficiently conductive, otherwise they are easily broken by the applied contact force.<figure id="fig:Typical process flow for the SILVERBRITE W ATPS process">[[File:Typical process flow for the SILVERBRITE W ATPS process.jpg|right|thumb|Figure 4: Typical process flow for the SILVERBRITE W ATPS process]]</figure>The passivation process SILVERBRITE W ATPS is a water-based tarnish preventer for silver (<xr id="fig:Typical process flow for the SILVERBRITE W ATPS process"/>). It is free of chromium(VI) compounds and solvents. The passivating layer is applied by immersion, which creates a transparent organic protective film which barely changes the appearance and only slightlyincreases the good electrical properties such as for example the contact resistance. The good solderability and bond properties of silver are notnegatively affected. Because of its chemical composition, this protective layer has some lubricating properties which reduce the insertion and withdrawal forces of connectors noticeably. ==References== Vinaricky, E. (Hrsg.): Elektrische Kontakte, Werkstoffe und Anwendungen.Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg 2002 Ganz, J.; Heber, J.; Macht, W.; Marka, E.: Galvanisch erzeugteEdelmetallschichten für elektrische Kontakte. Metall 61 (2007) H.6, 394-398 Song, J.: Edelmetalle in Steckverbindungen - Funktionen und Einsparpotential.VDE - Fachbericht 67 (2011) 13-22 Heber, J.: Galvanisch abgeschiedene Rhodiumschichten für den dekorativenBereich. Galvanotechnik, 98 (2007) H.12, 2931-2935 Johler, W.; Pöffel, K.; Weik, G.; Westphal, W.: High Temperature Resistanceth Galvanically Deposited Gold Layers for Switching Contacts. Proc. 15 HolmConf. on gold sulfite complexes are usedElectrical Contacts, Chicago (2005) 48-54 Grossmann, H. Schaudt, G.: Untersuchung über die Verwendbarkeit vonÜberzügen der Platinmetallgruppe auf elektrotechnischen Verbindungselementen.Galvanotechnik 67 (1976) 292-297 Grossmann, H.; Vinaricky, E.: Edelmetalleinsparung in der Elektrotechnik durchselektives Galvanisieren. In: Handbuch der Galvanotechnik. München, Hanser-Verlag, 37 (1981) 132-141 Grossmann, H.; Schaudt, G.: Hochgeschwindigkeitsabscheidung von Edelmetallenauf Kontaktwerkstoffen. Galvanotechnik 84 (1993) H.5, 1541-1547 Bocking, C.; Cameron, B.: The Use of High Speed Selective JetElectrodeposition of Gold for the Plating of Connectors. Trans. IMF. 72 (1994)33-40 Endres, B.: Selektive Beschichtungen von Kontaktmaterial imDurchzugsverfahren. Metalloberfläche 39 (1985) H.11, 400-404 Kaspar, F.; Marka, E.; Normann, N.: Eigenschaften von chemisch NickelGoldschichten für Baugruppen der Elektrotechnik.VDE Fachbericht 47 (1995) 19-27 Schmitt; W.; Kißling, S.; Behrens, V.: Elektrochemisch hergestellteSchichtsysteme auf Aluminium für Kontaktanwendungen.VDE - Fachbericht 67 (2011) 136-141 Freller, H.: Moderne PVD-Technologien zum Aufbringen dünnerKontaktschichten. VDE-Fachbericht 40 (1989) 33-39 Ganz, J.: PVD-Verfahren als Ergänzung der Galvanik. Metalloberfläche 45 (1991) Schmitt, W.; Franz, S.; Heber, J.; Lutz, O.; Behrens, V.: Formation of SilverSulfide Layers and their Influence on the Electrical Characteristics of Contacts inth the Field of Information Technology. Proc. 24 Int. Conf.on Electr. Contacts,Saint Malo, France (2008) 489-494 Buresch, I; Ganz, J.; Kaspar, F.: PVD-Beschichtungen und ihre Anwendungenfür Steckverbinder. VDE-Fachbericht 59 (2003) 73-80 Gehlert, B.: Edelmetalllegierungen für elektrische Kontakte.Metall 61 (2007) H.6, 374-379 Ganz, J.: Einsatz von Sputterverfahren bei komplexenBeschichtungsaufgaben. JOT 11 (1997) Buresch, I.; Bögel, A.; Dürrschnabel, W.: Tin Coating for Electrical Components.Metall 48 (1994) H.1, 11-14 Buresch, I.; Horn, J.: Bleifreie Zinnoberflächen.VDE-Fachbericht 61 (2005) 89-94 Adler, U.; Buresch, I.; Riepe, U.; Tietz, V.: Charakteristische Eigenschaften derschmelzflüssigen Verzinnung von Kupferwerkstoffen.VDE-Fachbericht 63 (2007) 175-180 Huck, M.: Einsatz von Schmiermitteln auf Gleit- und Steckkontakten.Metalloberfläche (1982) 429-435 Abbott, W.,H.: Field and Laboratory Studies of Corrosion Inhibiting Lubricantsfor Gold-Plated Connectors. Proc. HOLM Conf.on Electrical Contacts, Chicago(1996) 414-428 Noel, S.; Alarmaguy, D.; Correia, S.; Gendre, P.: Study of Thin Underlayers toHinder Contact resistance Increase Due to Intermetallic Compound Formation.th Proc. 55 IEEE Holm Conf. on Electrical Contacts, Vancouver, BC,Canada (2009) 153 – 159 Weik, G.; Johler, W.; Schrank, C.: Zuverlässigkeit und Eigenschaften von Gold –Schichten bei hohen Einsatztemperaturen.VDE – Fachbericht 65, (2009) 13 – 21 Buresch, I.; Hack, M.: Eigenschaften von Zinnschichten für elektromechanischeBauelemente – Einflussfaktoren und ihre Auswirkungen. VDE – Fachbericht 65,(2009) 23 – 30 Buresch, I.: Effekte intermetallischer Phasen auf die Eigenschaften vonZinnoberflächen auf Kupferlegierungen. VDE – Fachbericht 67 (2011) 38-46 Schmitt, W.; Heber, J.; Lutz, O.; Behrens, V.: Einfluss des Herstellverfahrens aufdas Korrosions- und Kontaktverhalten von Ag – Beschichtungen inschwefelhaltiger Umgebung.VDE – Fachbericht 65 (2009) 51 – 58 [[de:Beschichtungsverfahren]]